Impacts on Pregnancy & Birth

Note. From What to Expect During Your First Ultrasound Appointment [Photograph], by Sweet Pea 3D/4D, 2024 (https://www.sweetpea3d4dultrasound.com/post/what-to-expect-during-your-first-ultrasound-appointment)

Physiological impacts for the pregnant woman

Vulnerability factors for pregnant women in same-sex couples include:
• Escalated health risk behaviors, including new-onset tobacco use.
• Higher stress levels compared to heterosexual peers, leading to pregnancy complications (Everett et al., 2020).
• Increased obesity rates driven by exposure to discrimination and victimization (Everett et al., 2020).
• Alcohol misuse as a coping mechanism for minority stress (Everett et al., 2020).

Same-sex couples are increased risks of unsuccessful pregnancy, pregnancy loss, pre-existing medical conditions, and still birth compared with heterosexual couples (Croll et al., 2022)

Psychological impacts for the pregnant woman

Intertwining vulnerabilities including economic hardship, social isolation, and stigma can increase risks of developing anxiety and depression during the peripartum period which can affect mother-infant bonding (Ng et al., 2026)
Women are already at an increased risk with pregnancy, however, their risks for structural trauma also increase where heteronormative systems can cause them to fear revealing their homosexuality due to the risks of being perceived or treated differently by structural norms (Searle et al., 2017).
Perinatal depression and anxiety is higher is homosexual populations compared with heterosexual populations (Kirubarajan et al., 2022). This can increase the risks of parental suicide and bonding complications within early childhood (Kirubarajan et al., 2022).
Lack of social support, inappropriate questioning, and not being identified as a 'normal' parent causes stress, loneliness, and isolation wihtin same-sex couples (Kirubarajan et al., 2022).
Increased financial strains of reproductive technologies can cause stress for same-sex couples (Everett et al., 2020).
Same-sex couples often experience a greater sense of grief with pregnancy loss, compared with heterosexual couples, primarily due to greater fertility, legal, and social challenges within a heterosexual developed society (Croll et al., 2022)

Impacts on the fetus/infant

Multiple studies have highlighted that while being homosexual does not cause an increase in fetal/infant development, the stress associated with the vulnerability can cause:

Poor mother-infant bonding (Ng et al., 2026).
Increased rates of miscarriage or Stillbirth (Everett et al., 2020).
Increased risk taking behaviours of the mother such as tobacco and alcohol use can severely impact infant development through intrauterine neurodevelopmental delays/impairments, irritability, reduce fetal heart rate variability, intrauterine growth restriction, and neonatal abstinence syndrome during the postpartum period (Garza et al., 2026)

Impacts on the same-sex couples relationship and partners

Increased domestic violence occurrence (Sherriff, 2025)
Partners of pregnant women in same-sex relationships often have a loss off or have difficulty understanding their identity/role within the family as the non-carrying mother, primarily due to heteronormative systems. This can cause great distress, potentially causing some issues within their relationships and even bonding issues with their new babies (Levy & Middleton, 2025)
Same-sex couples often experience added strain from division of work such as who will carry the child (Kirubarajan, et al., 2022).